Black sun, high flame, and flood: Volcanic hazards in Iceland

Iceland is one of the most volcanically active areas on earth, but were it not for the description of the end of the world in the poem "Völuspá," one might think volcanic activity made little impression on Medieval Icelanders. Volcanic eruptions are duly recorded in annals from the early twelfth century onward, but as a rule they are noted with terse one-line accounts such as "1158: Second fire in Hekla" (Storm 1888: 116) or at most with minimal amplifications like "such great darkness that the sun was blocked" (ibid.: 134). The most detailed surviving description is given for events in AD 1362: Fire erupted in four places in the South and lasted from early June until autumn with such enormities that the whole of Litla hérað was deserted, and much of Hornafjörður and Lónshverfi. It devastated a nearly 200 km stretch [along the coast]. In addition Knappafell glacier burst forth into the sea with falling rocks, mud and dirt so that there was flat sand where before the sea had been 50 m deep. Two parishes were completely destroyed, those of Hof and Rauðalæk. The sand stood at mid-leg on flat land but was driven into dunes so that the houses could hardly be seen. Ash was blown to the North so that steps could be traced in the fallout. Also pumice was seen drifting on the sea off the Vestfjords, so dense that ships could hardly sail through. (ibid.: 226) With the possible exception of the pre-literate period Eldgjá eruption in AD 934-938, the events of AD 1362 were by all accounts the greatest volcanic calamity in Iceland in the Middle Ages (Thórarinsson 1958). Several other major volcanic eruptions occurred during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries AD, a period when Icelandic scholars wrote copiously about both recent history and contemporary developments, but it seems that even if they had an appreciable impact on the environment and the economy, the eruptions were not considered significant enough for comment. Nature, let alone volcanic eruptions, is firmly in the background of these writings: There is not a single unequivocal reference to a volcanic eruption in the entire corpus of Icelandic Family Sagas (Falk 2007). In contrast, modern writers have been eager to make the most of volcanic impacts on Icelandic history. Volcanism is routinely seen as one of the principal causes for the lack of development of Icelandic society by early modern times, while politicians like to claim that the perceived spirit and endurance of the Icelandic people was shaped on an anvil of ice and fire. In this chapter we argue that neither the Medieval indifference nor the modern hyperbole is a useful guide to understand how volcanic hazards affected preindustrial Icelandic society. We suggest that each volcanic event has to be understood within its landscape and historical context. Most volcanic eruptions occurred far from settled regions and had limited or no effect on society. In particular regions, volcanism was one element in a complex of environmental processes that could have negative impacts on land use and settlement, in both the short and long term. These regions represent a small proportion of settled areas in Iceland, and in the national context their degradation had negligible repercussions. Dramatic case histories of Icelandic volcanic eruptions are well-known, indeed iconic, yet they can only be truly understood in the context of the society and environment at the time, as well as their antecedents, trajectories of change, and complex interactions with each other. Occasionally, major eruptions and unlucky circumstances have contributed to nationwide calamities, depression, and famine. We stress that it was not the size or type of volcanic eruption alone that decided this outcome but rather the time of year it took place and the coincidence of other negative factors such as bad weather, failing fish stocks, or disease (in humans or animals)-factors that in combination could produce catastrophic shocks to the economic system. It is clear that Icelandic society dealt with such shocks on a routine basis. Some were exacerbated by volcanic eruptions and some were not, but in all cases the socioeconomic system recovered. This suggests that human suffering on a massive scale is not necessarily a measure of system resilience (or failure); societies can absorb enormous and inhuman pain and suffering without failing. Volcanic activity has occurred within thirty active volcanic systems that collectively make up the volcanic zones that cover about one- Third of Iceland (figure 3.1). Comparatively little of this area is settled. Eruptions are common, and there is geological evidence or written accounts (or both) for around 205 eruptions since the settlement of Iceland in the late ninth century AD (Thordarson and Larsen 2007). The exact number will never be known; but since two- Thirds of the records come from the latter half of the settlement period (post-ca. AD 1500), when all sources of evidence are more abundant and clear, the total is probably closer to 300 than to 200 events.